Grammar Point

	Uses	Examples
Say	used with direct and indirect speech Say is most often used without a personal object. If we want to put a personal object after say, we use to.	She said that it was my last chance. He said, ‘Good morning.’ She said that she would be late. (not She said me...) And I say to all the people of this great country...
Tell	used with direct and indirect speech after tell, we usually say who is told, i.e., tell someone something only used to mean ‘instruct’ or ‘inform’ Tell is used to tellsomeone to do something Tell is not used before objects like a word, a name, a sentence, a phrase. We do not usually use itafter tell to refer to a fact. tell someone again (repeat)	She told me that she would be late. She told me that it was my last chance. (not He told them, ‘Good morning.’) Tom’s mother told him to clean his room. Alice said a naughty word... (not Alice told a naughty word...) ‘I’ll tell you tomorrow.’ (not I’ll tell you it tomorrow.) ‘I don’t want to tell youagain to get your homework done.

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Look vs Watch

When you look at someone or something you are interested in appearance.

Generally we look at things that are static.

For example:

Look at these photos, they're really good.
I went to the art gallery to look at the exhibition of paintings.

Watch is a verb.

When you watch someone or something you are interested in what happens.

Generally we watch things that move or change state.

For example:

I watch TV every night.
The security guard watched the shoplifter steal the clock.

If I say to you "Look at him!" I mean for you to check out his appearance. But, if I say to you "Watch him!" I mean it as a warning.

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Do

We use the verb 'do' when someone performs an action, activity or task.

do a crossword
do the ironing
do the laundry
do the washing
do the washing up

'Do' is often used when referring to work of any kind.

do your work
do homework
do houseworkdo your job

!Note - these activities do not usually produce a physical object.

'Do' for General Ideas

Use the verb 'do' when speaking about things in general. In other words, to describe an action without saying exactly what the action is. This form is often used with the words 'something, nothing, anything, everything, etc.'

I'm not doing anything today.
He does everything for his mother.
She's doing nothing.

Important Expressions with 'Do'

There are a number of standard expressions that take the verb 'do'. The best solution is to try to learn them.

do badly
do business
do the dishes
do a favour
do good
do harm
do time - (to go to prison)
do well
do your best
do your hair
do your nails
do your worst

Make

We use the verb 'make' for constructing, building or creating

make a dress
make food
make a cup of tea / coffee

'Make' is often used when referring to preparing food of any kind.

make a meal - breakfast / lunch / dinner

!Note - these activities usually create something that you can touch.

Important Expressions with 'Make'

There are a number of standard expressions that take the verb 'make'. The best solution is to try to learn them.

make amends
make arrangements
make believe - (to pretend)
make a choice
make a comment
make a decision
make a difference
make an effort
make an enquiry
make an excuse
make a fool of yourself
make a fortune
make friends
make a fuss
make a journey
make love
make a mess
make a mistake
make money
make a move
make a noise
make a payment
make a phone call
make a plan
make a point
make a profit
make a promise
make a remark
make a sound
make a speech
make a suggestion
make time
make a visit
make your bed - (to prepare the bed for sleeping in)

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Still, yet & already

a) Still

We use "still" for something going on longer than expected. The situation has not stopped.

It is five o'clock in the morning and Paul is still working
Do you still want to go on holiday?

1.- If the verb has one part (e.g. says, does, fell, etc.), the adverb "still" usually goes before the verb.

I still watch 'Neighbours'
They still go to school

2.- If the verb has two or more parts (e.g. am running, were watching, etc.) the adverb "still" goes after the first verb.

I am still eating my dinner
We are still going to the cinema tonight

3.-If the sentence is negative, "still" goes before the negative.

I gave up smoking, but my friends still haven't given up

4.- If you want to express surprise, "still" can go after the negative.

You don't still like him, do you?

b) Yet

We use "yet" to express "until now".
We use "yet" for something that is expected.

Have you replied to the letter yet?

1.- We normally use "yet" with the present perfect.

I haven't eaten my breakfast yet
Have you been to London yet?

2.- "Yet" goes at the end of a question or a negative statement.

I haven't washed my car yet
Have you seen your Mum yet?

3.- We can use "yet" in the middle of a sentence, this is a little formal.

We have not yet reached a decision on the subject

c) Already

We use "already" for something happening sooner than expected.

I already know how to speak French

1.- If the verb has one part, "already" goes before the verb.

She already knows how to cook

2.- If the verb has two parts, "already" goes after the first verb.

I have already received my exam results

3.- "Already" at the end of a sentence has more emphasis.

Have you typed the letter already? (I am surprised that you have done it so quickly)

4.- You cannot use "already" with a negative sentence.

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Modal Verb

Example in a sentence

Can:

possibility OR current ability

permission (informal)

Okay, I can go to the store with you, but I need to be back home by 2pm. (possibility)

The baby can crawl. (current ability)

I, you, he/she/ it can crawl

We, you, they can crawl

Negative: The baby can't (cannot) crawl.

Can I borrow your pen? (permission)

might:

current OR future possibility (uncertain)

may:

permission (formal)

They might walk their dogs this afternoon. (future possibility)

I, you, he/she/ it might walk

We, you, they might walk

negative: They might not walk (don't contract this one!)

Answer the phone! It might be Brian. (current possibility)

I, you, he/she/ it might

We, you, they might

negative: might not break (don't contract!)

A: May I have some water? B: Yes, you may. (Asking permission - formal)

could

possibility OR former (general) ability

negative: past tense of can.

We could go to the party after the movie. (future possibility)

When I was younger, I could play the piano. (former ability)

I, you, he/she/ it could

We, you, they could

When I went out to eat last night, I couldn't read the signs because they were in Chinese.

I, you, he/she/ it couldn’t read

We, you, they couldn’t read

negative contraction: He couldn't read

*would

1. Conditional possibility (used with ‘if’)

*SEE SUPPLEMENTARY SHEET FOR ADDITIONAL USES OF ‘would.’

She would touch the spider if it was absolutely necessary, but she would rather not.

I, you, he/she/ it would touch

We, you, they would touch

negative contraction: wouldn't touch

She wouldn’t touch a spider under any circumstances.

should:

advice/opinion

He should be careful on those roller skates because he could fall.

I, you, he/she/ it should

We, you, they should

negative contraction: He shouldn't be

must:

necessary and important

(demonstrates the speaker’s opinion)

They must attend this important meeting.

I, you, he/she/ it must

We, you, they must

negative: They must not attend (a contraction here is okay, but it sounds formal & British.)

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Comparatives & Superlatives

Form the comparative and superlative forms of a one-syllable adjective by adding –er for the comparative form and –est for the superlative.

One-Syllable Adjective	Comparative Form	Superlative Form
tall	taller	tallest
old	older	oldest
long	longer	longest

Mary is taller than Max.
Mary is the tallest of all the students.
Max is older than John.
Of the three students, Max is the oldest.
My hair is longer than your hair.
Max's story is the longest story I've ever heard.

If the one-syllable adjective ends with an e, just add –r for the comparative form and –st for the superlative form.

One-Syllable Adjective with Final -e	Comparative Form	Superlative Form
large	larger	largest
wise	wiser	wisest

Mary's car is larger than Max's car.
Mary's house is the tallest of all the houses on the block.
Max is wiser than his brother.
Max is the wisest person I know.

If the one-syllable adjective ends with a single consonant with a vowel before it, double the consonant and add –er for the comparative form; and double the consonant and add –est for the superlative form.

One-Syllable Adjective Ending with a Single Consonant with a Single Vowel before It	Comparative Form	Superlative Form
big	bigger	biggest
thin	thinner	thinnest
fat	fatter	fattest

My dog is bigger than your dog.
My dog is the biggest of all the dogs in the neighborhood.
Max is thinner than John.
Of all the students in the class, Max is the thinnest.
My mother is fatter than your mother.
Mary is the fattest person I've ever seen.

Two-syllable adjectives.

With most two-syllable adjectives, you form the comparative with more and the superlative with most.

Two-Syllable Adjective	Comparative Form	Superlative Form
peaceful	more peaceful	most peaceful
pleasant	more pleasant	most pleasant
careful	more careful	most careful
thoughtful	more thoughtful	most thoughtful

This morning is more peaceful than yesterday morning.
Max's house in the mountains is the most peaceful in the world.
Max is more careful than Mike.
Of all the taxi drivers, Jack is the most careful.
Jill is more thoughtful than your sister.
Mary is the most thoughtful person I've ever met.

If the two-syllable adjectives ends with –y, change the y to i and add –er for the comparative form. For the superlative form change the y to i and add –est.

Two-Syllable Adjective Ending with -y	Comparative Form	Superlative Form
happy	happier	happiest
angry	angrier	angriest
busy	busier	busiest

John is happier today than he was yesterday.
John is the happiest boy in the world.
Max is angrier than Mary.
Of all of John's victims, Max is the angriest.
Mary is busier than Max.
Mary is the busiest person I've ever met.

Two-syllable adjectives ending in –er, -le, or –ow take –er and –est to form the comparative and superlative forms.

Two-Syllable Adjective Ending with -er, -le, or -ow	Comparative Form	Superlative Form
narrow	narrower	narrowest
gentle	gentler	gentlest

The roads in this town are narrower than the roads in the city.
This road is the narrowest of all the roads in California.
Big dogs are gentler than small dogs.
Of all the dogs in the world, English Mastiffs are the gentlest.

Adjectives with three or more syllables.

For adjectives with three syllables or more, you form the comparative with more and the superlative with most.

Adjective with Three or More Syllables	Comparative Form	Superlative Form
generous	more generous	most generous
important	more important	most important
intelligent	more intelligent	most intelligent

John is more generous than Jack.
John is the most generous of all the people I know.
Health is more important than money.
Of all the people I know, Max is the most important.
Women are more intelligent than men.
Mary is the most intelligent person I've ever met.

Exceptions.

Irregular adjectives.

Irregular Adjective	Comparative Form	Superlative Form
good	better	best
bad	worse	worst
far	farther	farthest
little	less	least
many	more	most

Italian food is better than American food.
My dog is the best dog in the world.
My mother's cooking is worse than your mother's cooking.
Of all the students in the class, Max is the worst.

Two-syllable adjectives that follow two rules. These adjectives can be used with -er and -est and with more and most.

Two-Syllable Adjective	Comparative Form	Superlative Form
clever	cleverer	cleverest
clever	more clever	most clever
gentle	gentler	gentlest
gentle	more gentle	most gentle
friendly	friendlier	friendliest
friendly	more friendly	most friendly
quiet	quieter	quietest
quiet	more quiet	most quiet
simple	simpler	simplest
simple	more simple	most simple

Big dogs are gentler than small dogs.
Of all the dogs in the world, English Mastiffs are the gentlest.
Big dogs are more gentle than small dogs.
Of all the dogs in the world, English Mastiffs are the most gentle.

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Conditional sentences

The conditional sentences are sometimes confusing for learners of English.

Watch out:

1) Which type of the conditional sentences is used?

2) Where is the if-clause (e.g. at the beginning or at the end of the conditional sentence)?

There are three types of the if-clauses.

type	condition
I	condition possible to fulfill
II	condition in theory possible to fulfill
III	condition not possible to fulfill (too late)

Form

type	if clause	main clause
I	Simple Present	will-future (or Modal + infinitive)
II	Simple Past	would + infinitive *
III	Past Perfect	would + have + past participle *

Examples (if-clause at the beginning)

type	if clause	main clause
I	If I study,	I will pass the exam.
II	If I studied,	I would pass the exam.
III	If I had studied,	I would have passed the exam.

Examples (if-clause at the end)

type	main clause	if-clause
I	I will pass the exam	if I study.
II	I would pass the exam	if I studied.
III	I would have passed the exam	if I had studied.

Examples (affirmative and negative sentences)

type		Examples
		long forms	short/contracted forms
I	+	If I study, I will pass the exam.	If I study, I'll pass the exam.
I	-	If I study, I will not fail the exam. If I do not study, I will fail the exam.	If I study, I won't fail the exam. If I don't study, I'll fail the exam.
II	+	If I studied, I would pass the exam.	If I studied, I'd pass the exam.
II	-	If I studied, I would not fail the exam. If I did not study, I would fail the exam.	If I studied, I wouldn't fail the exam. If I didn't study, I'd fail the exam.
III	+	If I had studied, I would have passed the exam.	If I'd studied, I'd have passed the exam.
III	-	If I had studied, I would not have failedthe exam. If I had not studied, I would have failedthe exam.	If I'd studied, I wouldn't have failed the exam. If I hadn't studied, I'd have failed the exam.

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Some and Any

The words some and any are used for countable and uncountable nouns. In general, we could say that some means a few / a little and any means none in negative clauses or a few / a little in questions.

Positive Clauses

In positive clauses, we usually use some.

Example:: I have bought some bread.; I have bought some apples.

Negative Clauses

In negative clauses, we use any. Note, however, that any alone is not a negative - it must be not ... any

Example:: I have not bought any bread.; I have not bought any apples.

Questions

In questions, we usually use any.

Example:: Have you bought any bread?; Have you bought any apples?

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Verb Tense Review and Exercises

Here is a helpful table with the tenses, a quick explanation and some helpful words/phrases associated with each of them.

	Past	Present	Future
Simple	An action that ended at a point in the past.	An action that exists , is usual, or is repeated.	A plan for future action.
	cooked	cook / cooks	will cook
(time clue)*	e.g. He cooked yesterday.	e.g. He cooks dinner every Friday.	e.g. He will cook tomorrow.
Progressive be + main verb +ing	An action was happening (past progressive) when another action happened (simple past).	An action that is happening now.	An action that will be happening over time, in the future, when something else happens.
	was / were cooking	am / is / are cooking	will be cooking
(time clue)*	e.g. He was cooking when the phone rang.	e.g. He is cooking now.	e.g. He will be cooking when you come.
Perfect have + main verb	An action that ended before another action or time in the past.	An action that happened at an unspecified time in the past.	An action that will end before another action or time in the future.
	had cooked	has / have cooked	will have cooked
(time clue)*	e.g. He had cooked the dinner when the phone rang.	e.g. He has cooked many meals.	e.g. He will have cooked dinner by the time you come.
Perfect Progressive have + be + main verb + ing	An action that happened over time, in the past, before another time or action in the past.	An action occurring over time that started in the past and continues into the present.	An action occurring over time, in the future, before another action or time in the future.
	had been cooking	has / have been cooking	will have been cooking
(time clue)*	e.g. He had been cooking for a long time before he took lessons.	e.g. He has been cooking for over an hour.	e.g. He will have been cooking all day by the time she gets home.

*Time clues: these are words that give some information about when an action occurs. Some examples are:

yesterday
every day
tomorrow
while
now

simple past
simple present
simple future
past progressive
present progressive

There are many words that are time clues; some can be used to indicate a number of tenses, for instance that something happened in the past or that it will happen in the future. If you learn to recognize these time clues, you will find them very helpful. Note that some time clues can be used with more than one verb tense and also that this table is not a complete listing of all the time clues that can be used with all of the tenses

CHART—TIME CLUES AND VERB TENSE

	Past	Present	Future
Simple	Simple Past	Simple Present	Simple Future
	yesterday last year/ month/ etc. before for five weeks/days/etc. one year/ month ago	every morning / day / etc. always usually frequently sometimes	tomorrow tonight next week/month/etc. soon in the future
Progressive	Past Progressive	Present Progressive	Future progressive
	while when	now right now this week/minute/etc.	when after as soon as before
Perfect	Past Perfect	Present Perfect	Future Perfect
	before already by the time until then/last week/etc. after	until now since ever never many times/ weeks/years/etc. for three hours/ minutes/etc/	by the time you go (somewhere) by the time you do (something) already
Perfect Progressive	Past Perfect progressive	Present Perfect Progressive	Future Perfect Progressive
	before for one week/hour/etc. since	for the past year/ month/ etc. for the last 2 months/ weeks/etc. up to now for 6 weeks/hours/etc. since	by the time for ten days/weeks/etc. by

Adjectives

Appearance Adjectives adorable beautiful clean elegant fancy glamorous handsome long magnificent old-fashioned plain quaint sparkling ugly cute	Color Adjectives red orange yellow green blue purple gray black white	Condition Adjectives alive better careful clever dead easy famous gifted helpful important inexpensive mushy odd powerful rich shy tender uninterested vast wrong	Feelings (Bad) Adjectives angry bewildered/perplexed clumsy defeated embarrassed grumpy helpless itchy jealous lazy mysterious nervous obnoxious panicky repulsive scary uptight worried
Feelings (Good) Adjectives agreeable brave calm delightful eager faithful gentle happy jolly kind lively nice obedient proud relieved silly thankful victorious witty	Shape Adjectives broad chubby crooked curved deep flat high hollow low narrow round shallow skinny square steep straight wide	Size Adjectives big colossal fat gigantic great huge immense large little mammoth massive miniature scrawny short small tall tiny	Sound Adjectives deafening faint hissing loud melodic noisy quiet raspy screeching whispering
Time Adjectives ancient brief early fast late long modern old old-fashioned quick rapid short slow young	Taste/Touch Adjectives bitter delicious fresh greasy juicy hot icy loose melted nutritious rotten salty sticky strong sweet tart tasteless uneven weak wet wooden yummy	Touch Adjectives boiling breeze broken bumpy chilly cold cool crooked cuddly curly damaged damp dirty dry dusty filthy flaky fluffy freezing hot warm wet	Quantity Adjectives abundant empty few full heavy light many numerous sparse substantial a lot a little

Prepositions – Time

English	Usage	Example
on	days of the week	on Monday
in	months / seasons time of day year after a certain period of time (when?)	in August / in winter in the morning in 2006 in an hour
at	for night for weekend a certain point of time (when?)	at night at the weekend at half past nine
since	from a certain point of time (past till now)	since 1980
for	over a certain period of time (past till now)	for 2 years
ago	a certain time in the past	2 years ago
before	earlier than a certain point of time	before 2004
to	telling the time	ten to six (5:50)
past	telling the time	ten past six (6:10)
to / till / until	marking the beginning and end of a period of time	from Monday to/till Friday
till / until	in the sense of how long something is going to last	He is on holiday until Friday.
by	in the sense of at the latest up to a certain time	I will be back by 6 o’clock. By 11 o'clock, I had read five pages.

Prepositions – Place (Position and Direction)

English	Usage	Example
in	room, building, street, town, country book, paper etc. car, taxi picture, world	in the kitchen, in London in the book in the car, in a taxi in the picture, in the world
at	meaning next to, by an object for table for events place where you are to do something typical (watch a film, study, work)	at the door, at the station at the table at a concert, at the party at the cinema, at school, at work
on	attached for a place with a river being on a surface for a certain side (left, right) for a floor in a house for public transport for television, radio	the picture on the wall London lies on the Thames. on the table on the left on the first floor on the bus, on a plane on TV, on the radio
by, next to, beside	left or right of somebody or something	Jane is standing by / next to / beside the car.
under	on the ground, lower than (or covered by) something else	the bag is under the table
below	lower than something else but above ground	the fish are below the surface
over	covered by something else meaning more than getting to the other side (also across) overcoming an obstacle	put a jacket over your shirt over 16 years of age walk over the bridge climb over the wall
above	higher than something else, but not directly over it	a path above the lake
across	getting to the other side (also over) getting to the other side	walk across the bridge swim across the lake
through	something with limits on top, bottom and the sides	drive through the tunnel
to	movement to person or building movement to a place or country for bed	go to the cinema go to London / Ireland go to bed
into	enter a room / a building	go into the kitchen / the house
towards	movement in the direction of something (but not directly to it)	go 5 steps towards the house
onto	movement to the top of something	jump onto the table
from	in the sense of where from	a flower from the garden

Other important Prepositions

English	Usage	Example
from	who gave it	a present from Jane
of	who/what does it belong to what does it show	a page of the book the picture of a palace
by	who made it	a book by Mark Twain
on	walking or riding on horseback entering a public transport vehicle	on foot, on horseback get on the bus
in	entering a car / Taxi	get in the car
off	leaving a public transport vehicle	get off the train
out of	leaving a car / Taxi	get out of the taxi
by	rise or fall of something travelling (other than walking or horseriding)	prices have risen by 10 percent by car, by bus
at	for age	she learned Russian at 45
about	for topics, meaning what about	we were talking about you

MILI - English A2+

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